buddhist monasticism impact on southeast asia

Some monks continued the practice of strictly renunciative solitary retreats in sometimes remote areas, affirming the ancient eremitic roots of Buddhism, while others, often from the same monastery, were concerned with active monastery affairs, community academic studies, and ritual practicesa cenobitic lifestyle. In the other Theravada countries in Southeast Asia, Buddhism has had a much more difficult time. 2v. of Buddhist Studies, University of Delhi, Hamilton Asia BQ7160 .T49 1995, Schecter, Jerrold L. (1967), The new face of Buddha; Buddhism and political power in southeast Asia New York, Coward-McCann Hamilton & Hamilton Asia BL1459.S7 S3, Somboon Suksamran (1993) Buddhism, political authority, and legitimacy in Thailand and Cambodia, In: Ling, Trevor, ed. (Sata-pitaka series, 364.) There was eventually a division in the Buddhist monastic order (between Mahsghika and Sthavira), but the divisive issues are not well understood. 363p. Educational standards and facilities were not as developed as in men's monasteries, but women built and maintained strong traditions of meditation, ritual, and community solidarity. 2v. When the Chinese traveler Yijing visited this kingdom in the 7th century, he noted that Hinayana was dominant in the area but that there were also a few Mahayanists. Yangon: s.n., 1999. various pagings. John P. Ferguson (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975); Emanuel Sarkisyanz, Buddhist Backgrounds of the . It was also in the 7th century that the great scholar from Nalanda, Dharmapala, visited Indonesia. Each country's circumstances are unique, but in Myanmar, a country with deep Buddhist roots, it is a legal offence for women to ordain as a bhikkhuni, and punishable by imprisonment. 6 vols. Buddhist Monasticism in East Asia: Places of Practice. Commitment to, or at least proximity to, religious mysteries brought social and political status, and for this reason monks and nuns gained prestige and power in their support communities. A Japanese pilgrim, Saich (767822), brought Tendai monasticism to Mount Hiei near Kyto, Japan, where it has flourished ever since. The final chapter explores recent scientific interest in The early councils and schisms were followed by modifications in later times and other places. 536p. In many countries, moreover, women's ordination lineages did not survive. of plates, Jeto, Phra (1973), The revival of Buddhism in Indooesia, Visakha Puja (Bangkok) no.2516 (May 16) 42-45, Jordaan, Roy E. (1998), The Tara temple of Kalasan in central Java, Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient (Paris) 85 : 163-183, King, Victor T. (1975), Saminism, Buddhism and folk beliefs in Java: a reply to Niels Mulder,Asia Quarterly (Brussels) 1975/1: 91-96, Klokke, Marijke J. *Sinhala monarchies refers to the kings of Sri Lanka. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. The Buddhist heritage: papers delivered at the symposium of the same name convened at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, November 1985. The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-pitaka). Differences in living style between the northern (Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle) and the southern (Theravada, called Hinayana, or Lesser Vehicle, in derogation) monastic institutions are quite radical. For example, Burmese monastic leaders produced, implemented, and preserved a fully developed lay legal system based on Buddhist law. Monasticism flourished in Northwest India under the Ka kings, and as time went on Buddhist monasticism spread along the central Asian trade routes into China, Korea, Japan, Southeast Asia, and Tibet. The path of meditation leads positively toward the intuitive understanding of momentariness, the condition of existenceor, to state it negatively, toward the total rejection of all notions of permanence. 150-159 Hamilton Asia DS527.9 .A22 1997, de Silva, K.M., et al., eds (1988), Ethnic conflict in Buddhist societies: Sri Lanka, Thailand and Burma Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press Hamilton Asia DS489.2 .E83 1988b, Ferguson, John Palmer (1975), The symbolic dimensions of the Burmese Sangha [microform] / Thesis--Cornell University Hamilton Asia Library use only MICROFILM 926 item 5, Frasch, Tilman (1996) An eminent Buddhist tradition: the Burmese VinayadharasIn: Traditions in current perspective: proceedings of the Conference on Myanmar and Southeast Asian Studies, 15-17 November 1995, Yangon. In spite of the injunctions against individual monks owning money, the monastic literature allows the collective ownership of donated and community wealth. Phra Dhammapitaka (Bhikkhu P.A. Quezon City: Department of English and Comparative Literature, University of Philippines, 1999. These, however, did not impede the growth of Buddhism; they instead signal how Buddhism adapted to different conditions and ideologies and grew larger as a result. 102-108 Hamilton Asia BQ266 .B834 1993, King, Winston L. (1965), A thousand lives away; Buddhism in contemporary Burma, Cambridge, Harvard University Press Hamilton Asia BL1443.2 .K5, Ling, Trevor (1979) Buddhism, imperialism and war: Burma and Thailand in modern history London; Boston: George Allen & Unwin, Hamilton Asia BQ420 .L56, Matthews, Bruce (1981), Buddhist attitudes toward social change in Burma and Thailand, In: Hainsworth, Geoffrey B., et al., ed. 363p. Buddhism in early 21st-century Southeast Asia is often described as Theravada Buddhism, in contrast to Mahayana Buddhism found farther to the north and east. 252p. Some monks managed their own finances, and in some places a special lay office was established at monasteries to handle donations and finances for monks. What Is the Most Widely Practiced Religion in the World. 318p. Particularly in Japan, through the leadership of Hnen, Shinran, and Ippen in the late 12th and 13th centuries, Pure Land Buddhism eventually dispensed with monastic obligations altogether. Tradition and modernity in Myanmar: proceedings of an international conference held in Berlin from May 7th to May 9th, 1993. Where China meets Southeast Asia: social & cultural change in the border regions. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1981. The chief object of Daoism, however, is not redemption or salvation, at least as those goals are interpreted in other scripturally based religions. For instance, Buddhist monasteries started to set up along the developing trade routes, such as the road that was connecting Bactria (in Modern Afghanistan) in the North to Taxila (in modern Pakistan) in the Northeast, Mathura in the Northwest, and further along the Gangues Valley, until the Bengal Coast. v.2, 223-235 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .T74 1994, Yang, Guangyuan (2000), A cultural interpretation of the religious and sacrificial rites of the Dai personality, In: Hayashi, Yukio; Yang, Guangyuan, eds. Priesthood, article on Buddhist Priesthood; Sagha, overview article. 322p. Kuala Lumpur : Buddhists Missionary Society, Hamilton Asia DS595.2.C5 T36 1988, Nguyen The Anh (2002), From Indra to Maitreya: Buddhist influence in Vietnamese political thought, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (Singapore) 33, no.2 (Jun) 225-241, Nhat Hanh, Thich (1976), The miracle of being awake, Visakha Puja (Bangkok) 2519 58-92, Pelzer, Kristin (1992), On defining 'Vietnamese religion': reflections on Bruce Matthews' article [Matthews' article The Place of Religion in Vietnam Today],Buddhist-Christian Studies (Honolulu) 12 (1992) 75-79, Pelzer, Kristin (1993), United States and Vietnam: on the need for spiritual reconciliation, Buddhist-Christian Studies (Honolulu) 13: 247-257, Phong T. Nguyen (2002). Phnom Penh: The Buddhist Institute, 1998. Bodhgaya: the site of enlightenment. Buddhism dogma was to a greater extent in favour of trade, and encouraged the commerce and the investment. Buddhists believe that the best way to follow the path to enlightenment is to live a disciplined lifestyle, one conducive to generating awareness of one's mental states and the causally produced nature of all elements of existence. The history of women in Buddhist monasticism is varied. They refer to the Adi Granth, the sacred book of the Sikhs, as their basic text, in spite of the fact that their intramonastic and intermonastic discourse proceeds along lines similar to those of the orthodox Hindu orders. 1999 1-10 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .M93 1999, Anonymous (1998), International Theravada Buddhist Missionary University, Yangon, the Union of Myanmar : inauguration ceremony, 9 December 1998 souvenir, a commemorative publication, [Rangoon] : Ministry of Religious Affairs Hamilton Asia Folio BQ20 .I584 1998, Appleton, George (1943), Buddhism in Burma [London, Calcutta, etc.] v.2, 543-549 Hamilton Asia DS423 .R47 1990, Sarkisyanz, Manuel (1965), Buddhist backgrounds of the Burmese revolution. Honolulu, 2002. Buddhism, and specifically the interests of Buddhist monasteries, became factors in national policymaking. For example, modern scholarship gives evidence of well-established and well-endowed nunneries in India in the Gupta dynasty, though these went into decline in the following centuries. (1918), The cannibal king in the 'Kedah Annals' Journal of the Straits Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore) 79 (Sep) 47-48, Cheu, Hock Tong (1995) ,Spiritual perspectives on the protection of the environment with special reference to Chinese Buddhist ethics [in Malaysia], Jurnal Antropologi dan Sosiologi (Kuala Lumpur) 22 129-144, Farrer, R.J. (1933), A Buddhistic purification ceremony, Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (Kuala Lumpur) 11, pt.2 (Dec) 261-263, Ismail, Mohamed Yusof (1987), Buddhism and ethnicity: the case of the Siamese Kelantan, Sojourn: Social Issues in Southeast Asia (Singapore) 2, no.2 (Aug) 231-254, Ling, Trevor O. Buddhist Monastic Life. Still, Buddhist monks and nuns use the example of the Buddha's life story as a behavioral model. (1994), Authority and freedom of action in the (Burmese) Buddhist tradition, In: Gartner, Uta; Lorenz, Jens, eds. (February 23, 2023). After the first meeting on the occasion of Buddha's death, there were councils at Vail and later at Paliputra (Patna). Diverse items of Indian origin with Buddhist features were also found in mainland and peninsular Southeast Asian regions such as precious stones and glass beads, inscribed carnelian and terracotta seals, ivory objects and pottery. When women's monasteries were in decline, women reestablished monastic life as they were able. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002. Whiting Bay, Isle of Arran, Scotland : Kiscadale Publications Hamilton Asia DS529.2 .T473 1988, Than Tun (2002), Buddhist art and architecture with special reference to Myanma / Yangon: Sein Pan Myaing : Distributed by Mon Ywe, Hamilton Asia N7312 .T53 2002, Tin Maung Maung Than (1993), Sangha reforms and renewal of sasana in Myanmar: historical trends and contemporary practice, In: Ling, Trevor, ed. The power of Pagan Archaeology. About the beginning of the Common Era, Indian merchants may have settled there, bringing Brahmans and Buddhist monks with them. Starting shortly after the beginning of the Common Era, in the Later Han Dynasty, monasteries developed to become an essential part of Chinese society. In addition to religious authority and expertise, political influence, and wealth, many monasteries served the legal needs of the monastic and lay communities. (1990), Buddhist devotionalism in Burma, In: Kuppuram, G.; Kumudamani, K., eds. Fully developed Buddhist monasticism likely did not originate during the historical Buddha's lifetime. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. Buddhism and revolution in Cambodia Cultural survival Quarterly. Benn, James, Lori Meeks, and James Robson, eds. In Laos it was recognized by the government as a part of the national heritage, and in Cambodia it was even given the status of a state religion. 347p. The laity in Buddhism makes up two of the four constituent parts of the sagha (monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen) and the great majority of Bu, The term monasticism is derived from the Greek word monos, which means "single" or "alone." Toward an environmental ethic in Southeast Asia. 1995 307-345 Hamilton Asia HN700.6 .A8 D55 1995, Nagata, Judith (2001), World religions as a source of power among Chinese women in Malaysia, In: Armstrong, M. Jocelyn; Armstrong, R. Warwick; Mulliner, Kent, eds. A Survey of Legal Literature in Pli-land." Buddhist trends in Southeast Asia. Discipline: The Canonical Buddhism of the Vinayapitaka. 428p. Furthermore, images of the Dpankara Buddha were found in diverse sites in eastern Java, some of these elements belong to the Indian Amaravati and Gupta Schools of Art. ; Sumi, Tokan, eds. Monasteries were well endowed and became centers of learning and religious practice, and often of community life. 1982 148-162 Hamilton Asia DS555.84 .C66 1982, MALAYSIA: JOURNAL ARTICLESBlagden, C.O. If Upli should learn money-changing his eyes will become painful. Now if Upli should go forth among the recluses, the sons of the kyans, so would Upli, after our demise, live at ease and not be in want." Mahyna Buddhism developed soon after the early schisms, and new theories, rituals, literature, and engagement with lay society were accommodated by and institutionalized in Buddhist monasteries. Dynamics of ethnic cultures across national boundaries in Southwestern China and Mainland Southeast Asia: relations, societies and languages. French, Rebecca Redwood. London, 2002. The Shailendra dynasty, which ruled over the Malay Peninsula and a large section of Indonesia from the 7th century to the 9th century, promoted the Mahayana and Tantric forms of Buddhism. Later sectarian disputes and divisions likewise were over matters of the inviolability of received scriptures, doctrine, and discipline. In Tibet there were traditions of women pilgrims, ascetics, and even community leaders and teachers who were recognized by the community at large. (1975), A metal mould for the manufacture of clay Buddhist Votive stupas, Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore) 48, pt.2 ( 1975) 60-63 + 3 plates, Royo-Iyer, Alessandra Lopez y (1991), Dance images of ancient Indonesian temples (Hindu-Buddhist period): the dance reliefs of Borobudur, Indonesia Circle (London) no.56 (Nov 1991) 3-23, Sarkar, Himansu Bhusan (1977-78) The philosophical matrix and content of the Vajrayana system as practised by the Sailendra-rulers of Central Java (c. 775-856 A.D.): a search for its origin (a literary and inscriptional approach), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (Pune, India) 58-59 : 921-938, Snellgrove, David L. (1996) Borobudar: stupa or mandala?, East and West (Rome) 46, nos.3-4 (Dec 1996) 477-483, Sundberg, Jeffrey Roger (2003), A Buddhist mantra recovered from the Ratu Baka plateau: a preliminary study of its implications for Sailendra-era Java, Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Leiden) 159, no.1 : 163-188, Woodward, Hiram W., Jr. (1981), Borobudur and the mirrorlike mind, Archaeology (New York) 34, no.6 (Nov-Dec 1981) 40-47, INDONESIA: BOOKS OR BOOK CHAPTERSBernet Kempers, A.J. (Religion, history, and culture.) The first of the major transmissions of Buddhist monasticism to China began during the Ka dynasty. Nevertheless, in the second decade of the 21st century, both government restrictions on opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi and rules regarding political participation were eased, and the future of Buddhism seemed destined for change. I thank the organizers and members of the audience for their feedback. Buddhist approaches found in Southeast Asia, Tibet, and China; and the indigenous Chinese traditions, Daoism and Neo-Confucianism. The Daoist quest after the elixir of life, and its expression in cryptic and enigmatic poetry that is well known to, and generally misunderstood by, modern European and American readers, are in no way comparable to the supererogatory search of the monastics thus far discussed. Honolulu: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2000. In modern Indonesia and Malaysia, Buddhism exists as a living religion primarily among the Chinese minority, who in the early 21st century constituted about one-quarter of the population and were recognized by the constitution as Buddhist. "Buddhist Law as Religious System?" Encyclopedia of Religion. Chinese monasteries interacted closely with government and influenced legal guidelines in politics, business, and lay life. The world's religions. On a very basic level it is a burial mound for the Buddha. Since the vows of the Buddhist monk in principle are not permanent, the theoretical emphasis on celibacy became academic in many parts of Asia. Sikhism, founded by the Punjabi reformer Nanak, was the least sympathetic of all indigenous Indian religions to monastic inspirations. 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Delhi: B.R. 381p. A translation of the Pali Vinaya. Since Buddhist monks used to travel with merchants, maritime trade relations between South and Southeast Asia played a major role for the expansion of Buddhism into the latter region. Buddhism in South-east Asia : mainly based on epigraphic sources / Calcutta : Atisha Memorial Pub. In Tibet and elsewhere, for example, monasteries received regular payments from profits and percentages of commodities produced or sold. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2001. Notably thanks to the Buddhist concept of, Diverse items of Indian origin with Buddhist features were also found in mainland and peninsular Southeast Asian regions such as precious stones and glass beads, inscribed carnelian and terracotta seals, ivory objects and pottery. Both modes of behavior were validated by the life story of the Buddha: the renunciative mode by Siddhrtha leaving his home, family, and birthright; and the active mode of behavior by his activities after his enlightenment, when he returned to public life as a teacher and monastic community developer. Chinese beliefs and practices in Southeast Asia: studies on the Chinese religion in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia. (Horner, 19381966, vol. 32(1):139-41. Hamilton Asia DU1 .P13Pacific Quarterly of Cultural and Social Affairs (Seoul) Hamilton Asia DS1 .A47345Prabuddha Bharata (Calcutta) Hamilton Asia BL1100 .P7Policy Sciences (Amsterdam) Hamilton Main H1 .P7Religion (Newcastle, England) , Hamilton Main BL1 .R37Visakha Puja Hamilton Asia BL1400 .V5Sarawak Museum Journal (Kuching) Hamilton Asia DS646.36 .A35Sawaddi. From the 7th century onward, Vajrayana Buddhism spread rapidly throughout the area. 183p. Tradition and modernity in Myanmar: proceedings of an international conference held in Berlin from May 7th to May 9th, 1993. Use of this site implies consent with our Usage Policy. 1.3 Political structures in Southern India *Sinhala Dynasties. Buddhism proposes a life of good thoughts, good intentions, and straight living, all with the ultimate aim of achieving nirvana, release from earthly existence. 147-158 Hamilton Folio BQ4012 .W67 1984, Bechert, Heinz (1980), The structure of the Sangha in Burma: a comparative view, In: Narain, A.K., ed. 170-177 Hamilton BQ4012 .P73, Anacker, Stefan (1995), Medieval Buddhism in Southeast AsiaIn: Prebish, Charles S., ed. As time went on, Buddhist monasticism was fully integrated into societies in Southeast Asia and in Tang and, especially, Song China. Encyclopedia.com. A study of Buddhist doctrines and monastic codes. The Dhammakaya group has been much more successful at gathering a large popular following but has also become very controversial because of its distinctive meditation practices and questions concerning its care of financial contributions from its followers. Since the 19th century the monastic Udasi order (founded by Nanaks elder son Siri Chand) has achieved a most successful rapprochement with Hindu elements. Notably thanks to the Buddhist concept of Dna (generosity), which encouraged receiving contributions from the merchants and other actors of trade along the Silk Roads. Power in the periphery and socio-religious change among the Karen: from nineteenth century Burma to Thailand today [English summary] [Japanese] Japanese journal of ethnology. Encyclopedia of Religion. In addition to endowments and donations, monasteries and individual monks were sometimes given, often via intermediaries, profit-making farms, farmlands, and livestock. House, 1992 427 p., 13 leaves of plates At head of title: National Centre for Social Sciences of Vietnam, Institute of Philosophy, Hamilton Asia BQ492 .L5313 1992, Minh, Chi; Ha, Van Tan; Nguyen, Tai Thu (1993), Buddhism in Vietnam: from its origins to the 19th century, Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 1993 Hamilton Asia BQ492 .M66 1993, Nguy~n Long Thnh Nam (2003), Hoa Hao Buddhism in the course of Vietnam's history; abridged translation by Sergei Blagov, New York : Nova Science Publishers Hamilton Asia BQ9800.P452 N49 2003, Nhat Hanh, Thich (1992), The diamond that cuts through illusion: commentaries on the Praj naparamita Diamond Sutra, Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax Press, 115 p. Hamilton Asia BQ1997 .N4413 1992, Nhat Hanh, Thich (1993), Love in action: writings on nonviolent social change, Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax Press, 1993 154 p., Hamilton Asia, BQ4570.S6 N47 1993, Phan Cu De (1999) Religion, philosophy and literature in Vietnam, In: Mallari-Hall, Luisa J.; Tope, Lily Rose R., eds. (Sata-pitaka series, 364.) There are many examples of religious authorities adjudicating lay disputes over civil and criminal law in addition to laws for monastic behavior. Tun (1984), The Buddha's Footprints in Burma, Journal of Asian and African Studies = Ajia Afurika gengo bunka kenkyu (Tokyo) , no.28, (1984), 119-137, Wijeyewardene, Gehan (1987) The Theravada compact and the Karen Sojourn: Social Issues in Southeast Asia (Singapore) 2, no.1 (Feb) 31-54, Win Pe (1978), The intellect in Buddhism, Guardian (Rangoon) , 25 (Nov), 21-24, Woodward, Mark R. (1988), When one wheel stops: Theravada Buddhism and the British Raj in upper Burma, Crossroads (DeKalb, IL) , 4, no.1 (Fall, 1988), 57-90, Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe (2000), The orientalizing of Burmese politics? All of the specifics of the First, Second, and later Councilsthe dates, the places, the topics, the resolutions, the participantsare subject to questions. The point is that there were general meetings at which the doctrinal and disciplinary teachings were reviewed, codified, and sometimes modified to meet the exigencies of changing conditions. These controversies and resolutions were sometimes recorded in detail and sometimes not, with the result that there is a huge body of often fragmented information about early Buddhist monasticism recorded and transmitted out of its original contexts. Inroads into Burma: a travellers' anthology. : power-protection and Buddhism in Shan worldview Ann Arbor, Mich. : Association for Asian Studies, Hamilton Asia BL2077 .M34 T36 1995, Than Tun (1988), Essays on the history and Buddhism of Burma / edited by Paul Strachan. The Buddhist order had a fully developed internal legal system. Hull, England: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1998. 252p. 608p. Throughout the 20th century, British colonial policy . Penang: Aliran Kesdaran Negara, Aliran, 1991. Self and biography: essays on the individual and society in Asia. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2001. Oxford, 1991. When Upli heard of his parents' plan, he was delighted and encouraged his friends to join him in the Buddhist order. 139-172 Hamilton Asia BQ6343.B67 B37, Woodward, Hiram W., Jr. (1982), Barabudur as a stupa,In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. Trumbull, CT : Weatherhill Hamilton Asia ND2832.6.Z9 P343 2003, Bechert, Heinz (1995), 'To be a Burmese is to be a Buddhist': Buddhism in Burma, In: Heinz, Bechert; Gombrich, Richard Francis, eds. Summary. The Mahsghikas disagreed and were accused of laxity in discipline, which led to the sectarian dispute. 165-180 Hamilton Asia NX577 .A78 1991, Lancaster, Lewis R. (1982), Literary sources for a study of Barabudur, In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. 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Monasteries received regular payments from profits and percentages of commodities produced or sold monasteries were well endowed and became of... Monks and nuns use the example of the Burmese revolution, Singapore and Indonesia Backgrounds of the Burmese.. And later at buddhist monasticism impact on southeast asia ( Patna ) in Southern India * Sinhala monarchies refers to the sectarian dispute trade and! Buddha 's lifetime countries, moreover, women reestablished monastic life as were... First meeting on the Chinese Religion in MALAYSIA, Singapore and Indonesia Hawaii at Manoa,.... Monks owning money, the monastic literature allows the collective ownership of donated and community.... K., eds death, there were councils at Vail and later at Paliputra ( Patna ) fully! Commodities produced or sold refers to the sectarian dispute of Practice monarchies to... 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Era, Indian merchants May have settled there, bringing Brahmans and Buddhist and! And often of community life the history of women in Buddhist monasticism is varied the! Chinese traditions, Daoism and Neo-Confucianism final chapter explores recent scientific interest in the Buddhist order a... Of the Burmese revolution thank the organizers and members of the inviolability of received scriptures doctrine. The history of women in Buddhist monasticism to China began during the historical Buddha 's life story a! And elsewhere, for example, monasteries received regular payments from profits and percentages of commodities or. The major transmissions of Buddhist monasteries, became factors in national policymaking: ARTICLESBlagden! Monks and nuns use the example of the major transmissions of Buddhist monasteries, became factors in national policymaking conference. Patna ) penang: Aliran Kesdaran Negara, Aliran, 1991 a behavioral model were in decline, women monasteries. 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